Irish Ogadeni Solidarity Committees

THE CASE OF WESTREN
SOMALILAND
(OGADEN): AN
INTERNATIONAL LEGAL
PERSPECTIVE

Legal and historical document written by

Professor Reisman who teaches at Yale Law

School. The present essay draws on work

he and Professor Myres S. McDougal (Yale

Law School) have been engaged in jointly.

THE CASE OF WESTREN SOMALILAND (OGADEN):
AN INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PERSPECTIVE

HORN OF AFRICA JULY-SEPTEMBER

Somaliland, as a geographical term, refers to vast areas in the Horn of Africa, inhabited almost
exclusively by the Somali people for centuries. Western Somaliland the extensive inland area between
the mountain ranges of Ethiopia and the plains of the Somali Republic has been claimed by both
countries. It is inhabited almost entirely by Somalis, who appear to identify, to all intents and purposes,
with the Somali Republic; ecologically, the area appear to be more integral to Somalia than to Ethiopia.
Ethiopia exercises jurisdiction in the area. However, throughout most of this century it has been the
theater of international warfare, sometimes local but increasingly international.

Any consideration of the legal issues in the conflict in Somaliland-in particular, to whom it rightly
belongs requires some historical perspective. The dismemberment of the Somaliland and the division of
its people were effected in the last half of the 19th and the early part of 20th centuries by four expanding
Empires: Great France. Italy, and Ethiopia. Britain's original interest in Somaliland was as a food source
for Aden. By the 1870’s , the UK had agreed to Egyptian jurisdiction as far south as Ras Hafun, primarily
to preserve other European powers from entering there. Meanwhile the French established themselves at
Obock and the Gulf of Tadjoura, while the Italians entered the wings, as it were at Asseb in Eritrea. In
1889, Italy tried to establish a protectorate over Abyssinia. But Ethiopia repudiated the interpretation of
Italy's claims and developed its own imperial ambitions, circulated in the letter by Menelik II, in 1891, in
which he made allegedly historical claims over vast areas of East Africa1.

From 1884 to 1889. Britain concluded protectorate agreements with coastal Somalis in order to fill the
vacuum created by Egypt's precipitous withdrawal from the region In 1816, a treaty with the Ogaden was
signed. Comparable agreements were struck with other Somalis by French and Italy. Among themselves,
the three imperial powers had worked out basic spheres of influence and some boundary agreements2. In
1884, for example, Britain purported to establish boundaries with Italy for their respective protectorates.
Neither had been authorized to do this under the express terms of the treaties with the Somalis by the

During this period, the power of Ethiopia increased greatly, partly because of the political acumen of
Menelik II ant partly because of the cupidity of European arms marchants who supplied his forces with
modern arms. In 1896, Menelik decisively defeated the Italian army at Adowa, thus undoing the border
agreements which Britain and France had just concluded with Rome. Menelik's strategic importance was
magnified by the Mahdist revolt then in full flame in the Sudan. Anxious to purchase Menelik's neutrality
in that conflict and to discourage his incursions into the Somali protectorate, Britain concluded another
border agreement with Menelik in 1897, surrendering large expanses of the British Somaliland Protecto-
rate to Ethiopia3. This treaty was concealed from the Somalis, who apparently could not divine it, in any
case, from changes in the minimal local activity by Ethiopian regular and irregular forces. As for the
boundary between Ethiopia and the Italian Somali protectorate, an agreement was concluded in 1896, hut
no copy of it nor record of its terms is extant. The local inhabitants were not again consulted. A joint
attempt to demark the boundary in 1908 failed. In the south, Britain established a protectorate over
Jubaland which was ultimately extended into that part of Somaliland now administered by Kenya in its
Northern Frontier District. Part of this was ceded back to Italy by Britain ,after the First World War,

Modern Somali nationalism is said to have commenced with Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, the
so-called "Mad Mullah", who sought to drive out the Europeans as well as the Ethiopians at the beginning
of the century4. He failed and. for the next forty years, the struggles in Somalia were essentially between
the four imperial powers. In 1935, Italy occupied Ethiopia and in 1940 British Somaliland as well. Shortly
afterwards, the British conquered the Italians in East Africa and, for a short period, virtually all of

HORN OF AFRICA JULY-SEPTEMBER

Somaliland was united under a single colonial power. In 1942, Britain restored Ethiopian sovereignty in
the metropolitan areas and confirmed the borders which had been set in 1897; but it retained adminis-
tration of parts of Somaliland: Ogaden, the Hand anti the Reserved Area.

This is riot the place to explore the strikingly consistent territorial metaphysics of empires throughout
history; however, a brief comment is called for. Empires which have basest themselves on an attributed
divine authority or some mystical volksgeist do not seem to accept the notion of fixed borders. Instead
they conceive of what we may call "perimeters" provisionally demarking their sphere of effective control
from that of the "barbarians." The perimeter is to be respected by the barbarian but will be pushed back at
an appropriate time by the power of the empire. In the interim, imperial designs on the barbarian territory
are to be respected by third states. This metaphysics confounding to the outsider but self-evident to
believers, permits the empire simultaneously to demand respect for the perimeter, to retain the prerogative
of expanding the perimeter at will, and to retain the right to denounce, with a fully righteous indignation,
territorial moves by another state in its own intended area as "aggressive" or "expansionist". An insight
into this metaphysics can help to explain Haile Selassie's territorial programs, even before he himself
regained effective power. An imperial proclamation of 1941 declared:

I have come to restore the independence of my country including Eritrea and the Benadir [the Ethiopian name for
Somalia], whose people will henceforth dwell under the shade of the Ethiopian flag.5

Belatedly, Europeans familiar with the history of the area began to consider the interest of the Somalis. In
1946 Ernest Bevin, then British Foreign Secretary, recommended a Greater Somalia:

Now may I turn to Eritrea and Somaliland. I pink that M. Molotov has been more than unjust in stating that we
arc trying to expand the British empire at the expense of Italy and Ethiopia and to consolidate what he calls the
monopolistic position of Great Britain in the Mediterranean and Red Sea. In the latter part of the last century the
Horn of Africa was divided between Great Britain, France and Italy. At about the time we occupied our part, the
Ethiopians occupied an inland area which is the grazing ground for nearly half the nomads of British Somaliland
for six months of the year. Similarly, the nomads of Italian Somaliland must cross the existing frontiers in search
of grass. In all innocence, therefore, we proposed that British Somaliland, Italian Somali-land, and the adjacent
part of Ethiopia, if Ethiopia agreed, should be lumped together as a trust territory, so that the nomads should lead
their frugal existence with the least possible hindrance and there might be a real chance of a decent economic life,

The proposal failed and, in 1948, the British withdrew from the Ogaden and the Ethiopian Empire seized
it. A Somali protest in Jigjiga was suppressed. In 1950, the Italian protectorate was transformed into an
Italian Trust Territory with a pre-determined duration of 10 years. In 1954, the vestige of the Reserved
Area was given to Ethiopia without warning, occasioning violent demonstrations of protest in the British
protectorate. In 1960, the British protectorate and the Italian Trust Territory achieved independence and
For their part Somali leaders consistently refused to endorse the unauthorized disposition of their territory

After independence, the union of Somalia with the British Protectorate added a new complication. In their
negotiations with the British government the Protectorate leaders formally refused to endorse the provisions of the
Anglo-Ethiopian treaty of 1897 which they were considered to fall heir to in succession to Britain. However
questionable in international law, their attitude was that they could hardly be expected to assume responsibility
for a treaty which, without Somali consent and in defiance of prior Anglo-Somali agreements, eventually led to

The Somali Liberation Front began operations in the administered territories against Ethiopian forces and
established a number of offices abroad. The available record of Ethiopian's activities in the Somali
territories it administers varies from indifference to bursts of violence. From some publications such as
the United States Area Handbook8 a picture of benign neglect emerges. But examinations closer to the
field reveal frequent instances of official violence, often intended to suppress the political and economic
rights of the Somalis. Practices of this sort were heralded by Ethiopian entry into the Ogaden in 1948,
when police opened fire and killed 25 members of the Somali Youth League. Nor was this a single

HORN OF AFRICA JULY-SEPTEMBER

instance. A correspondent for the London Times who visited the Haud in 1956 reported:

Individual tribesmen have been brutally treated (it is not possible to describe the intensely painful and humiliating
torture) and Ethiopian police have attacked the tribal women. British liaison officers have been threatened by
armed police, and attempts have been made to overwhelm and disarm the British tribal policemen. The most
recent and serious development has been a blatant attempt to suborn the British tribes. In the case of the Habar
Awal, the Ethiopian authorities tried to foist upon it some settled and partly detribalised members as Sultan and
elders, a plan that strikes at the roots of the tribal organization and loyalty. At the same time, an intertribal
meeting was called without notifying the British liaison officers, and Ethiopian officials, alternating between
threats and promises, tried to persuade the tribesmen to accept Ethiopian nationality….9

Many other examples are provided by the late Professor Silberman in an unpublished manuscript." it is
difficult to say whether acts such as these represented a policy of official terror or were simply
undisciplined outbursts. From the standpoint of international responsibility the distinction'' may not be

The most recent history of western Somaliland has less to do with the issues of substantive law
considered in this paper and more with procedures. Hence, it may be reviewed briefly. The uneasy
stalemate of Somali and Ethiopian claims in western Somaliland was stabilized from in 1960 to what
appeared to be a reciprocally tolerable level of violence. Whenever that level was exceeded, Ethiopia
responded with major coercions directed against the Somali Republic. Throughout this period, Somalia
contended that its regular forces were nor engaged in the belligerent zone, while Ethiopia insisted that

The overthrow of the Emperor by the Dergue in 1974 set loose centrifugal forces throughout the Empire
and as in other parts, the level of lighting escalated in western Somaliland. The increasing success of
Somali forces coincided with the expulsion of the Soviets from the Somali Republic and the shift of their
support to the Dergue. In addition to materiel, this support included as many as 10,000 Cuban soldiers
reportedly under Russian generals, a force sufficient to turn the tide against the Somalis, most of whose.
forces appeared to break and retreat to the Somali Republic. Thus, Ethiopian control of the area was re-
established. If the pattern in the Horn of Africa persists, the events of 1977 and 1978 will not be the
conclusion but only one more chapter in a continuing conflict. The international legal issues are not

The western Somali case is not, at heart, a boundary dispute, hut an aspect of the case which is quite
unique in the context of African politics is the absence of legal borders between Somalia and Ethiopia.
Between Ethiopia and the former Trust Territory, there is only a provisional administrative line which
the British established when they transferred the territory to Italy- (the UN designated trustee) in 1950:
the provisionality of the line was underlined in Article I of the Trusteeship Agreement and, in fact, from
1950 until the termination of the Trust in 1960 the General Assembly of the United Nations pressed
Ethiopia and Somalia to establish a boundary.10 Nor are there a binding treaties, for the Somalis are not
party to any agreement ceding parts of Somaliland to Ethiopia since they never authorized any European

In 1897, an agreement between the Italians and Emperor Menelik II reportedly established a provisional
border running parallel to the coast. The terms the agreement are not known because no documents have
survived11. But here again there is no indication of Somali privity.
In 1908, another Italian-Ethiopian Convention established the basis for the demarcation of the border,12
but it was never implemented, partly because it incorporated the 1897 agreement which had vanished.
From I935 to 1948, the Ogaden was merged with Italian Somaliland and administered in sequence by the

HORN OF AFRICA JULY-SEPTEMBER

Italians and the British. Thereafter, the Ogaden was given hack to Ethiopia, once again without
consulting the wishes of the inhabitants. This latter transfer, it may he noted, was effected after the
United Nations Charter and the formal installation of the doctrine of the right of self-determination as a
Thus, the legal situation with regard to the southern borders is that there is no de jure border; all that
exists is the "provisional administration line" established by Britain, Italy and Ethiopia at the time of the
establishment of the Trust in 1950. The repeated United Nations efforts to secure a demarcation of a
boundary between Ethiopia and Somalia from 1950 to 1960, as well as the language of the Trusteeship
Agreement itself, make clear that the official representatives considering the matter in the UN did not
believe that the provisional administrative line of 1950 was a legal or de jure border.
The complex and confusing web of border claims between Ethiopia and the Somali Republic in the area
of the former British Protectorate can only be unraveled by tracing lines of asserted authority back to
their source: the will of the indigenous Somali peoples inhabiting the region in question. In the l880s,
Great Britain concluded a number of Protectorate Agreements with Somali coastal tribes. the final bring
with the Ogaden in 1896.13 These Protectorate Agreements represent the foundation of British authority
The agreements, with minor variations in formula, reiterated a number of key points. First, the manifest
objective of the agreement, as set out in the considerandum, is the maintenance of the independence of
the tribe concluding the agreement. Second, the agreement by express language and implication
concede the sovereignty of the tribes over their territory. To deny, it would indeed, have undercut the
entire purpose of concluding such agreements. Third, the agreements establish the relationship of trust
and good faith, hardly less demanding than that of trustee in private law. Thus, Article I of the agreement

The British Government, in compliance with the wish of the undersigned Elders of Warsangali, undertakes to
extend to them and to the territories under their authority and jurisdiction the gracious favour and protection of

Given the ecological indispensability of the inland areas to the nomadic life, it requires a great leap of the
imagination to assume that the Somalis would even imply that Britain or anyone else might alienate that

. . the Somalis in signing the 1884, and later, agreements knew full well what they were doing and .. they had not
ceded any right to the Crown to disrupt by treaty the arduously built up mastery of the seasonal ecology of the

It is this complex of- protectorate agreements which formed the exclusive basis of the authority of Great
Britain with respect to the Somali territory. Principles of the interpretation of international agreements
require strict construction of the terms of the instruments, especially when there may be a partial cession
of sovereignty. Lawful performance requires strict fidelity to the explicit terms which have been agreed

In 1884, the British attempted to delimit the inland boundaries of the Somali protectorate with Italy,
which purported to have a protectorate over Ethiopia. The agreement of May 5, 1894 extended the
protectorate considerably inland. But Menelik II, the Ethiopian Emperor, refused to acknowledge Italy's
asserted protectorate. The subsequent Italian defeat at the hands of Menelik and Britain's difficulties with
the Mahdist uprising in the Sudan made London anxious to settle with Ethiopia on terms that would win
Menelik's good will.16 James Renncl Rodd, later Lord Rennel of Rod, was sent to Addis Ababa in 1897
and concluded a treaty and an exchange of notes delimiting the border.17 The note of June 4, 1897, pur-
ported to establish the border. In contrast to the agreement with Italy in 1894, Great Britain in the 1897
agreement ceded about 25,000 square miles. Other provisions of the Treaty of June 4, 1897 made plain
that the United Kingdom had struck a "package" deal, purporting to trade the patrimony of the Somali
tribes in exchange for commercial privileges for British traders in Ethiopia and commitments by Menelik
to remain neutral with regard to the Mahdist war. As against Britain's breach of the Somali protectorate,

HORN OF AFRICA JULY-SEPTEMBER

there was no countervailing Ethiopian claim of any international legal merit, for as of 1897 Ethiopian
claims could not be supported "by any firm Ethiopian occupation on Somali soil beyond Jigjiga.18 The
Somalis themselves were unaware of the 1897 Agreement. Lewis reports:

. . . it was not until 1934, when an Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission attempted to demarcate the boundary,
that British-protected Somali became aware of what had happened, and expressed their sense of outrage in
disturbances which cost one of the commissioners his life. This long period of ignorance, far from indicating
acquiescence, was facilitated by the many years which elapsed before Ethiopia established any semblance of

Ethiopia's claims for Somali territory adjacent to the former British Protectorate are ultimately based, in
inter-national law, upon the 1897 Treaty and the Exchange of Letters which followed it. Insofar as that

As a matter of law and fact, the 1897 Treaty was void because it presumed an authority which the
Somalis had never accorded Great Britain. The Somalis gave no authority to the British to transfer Somali
territory to an-other state. Ironically, the British had committed them-selves to protect the Somali territory
and this was the manifest reason for the Protectorate. In attempting to transfer the land to Ethiopia, the
British were acting with-out competence, exceeding their jurisdiction and concluding an agreement
without the participation of the central party. Moreover, the Treaty violated the fundamental trust which
was expressed in the Protectorate Agreements on which the British rested their authority with regard to
the Somali Territory. Even if the Treaty of 1897 had originally been valid, it would have been invalidated
by Ethiopia's failure to perform key obligations. In the :'Namibia opinion, the International Court of

The 1954 Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement, the purported successor of the 1897 agreement, imposed the
fundamental obligations on Ethiopia, some deriving from the core of the original 1897 agreement. In
particular, the 1954 Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement reaffirmed the boundary and grazing rights of the 1897
treaty and so provided for the continued functioning of tribal authorities and police in the areas to be
given to Ethiopia “as set up and recognized by the government of the Somaliland Protectorate,” but
“without prejudice to the jurisdiction of the Imperial Ethiopian Government.” Ethiopia did not comply
with these provisions to the satisfaction of its treaty partner, and the British Government formally stated:

... a party which disowns or does not fulfil its own obligations cannot be recognized as retaining the rights which

Many of the actions of the Ethiopian authorities……proved to be neither in accord with the letter nor the spirit of

The Ethiopian violations cut the fundamental provisions of the Treaty and may thus be deemed to be
contrary to basic purpose of the Agreement, thus authorizing the termination of the agreement by

The level, not to speak of its quality, of the administration exercised by Ethiopia in western Somaliland
was itself inadequate to cure the defects in its treaty claims or to constitute an independent basis for
claiming title to the area. In the Western Sahara case, the Kingdom of Morocco sought to build its
argument on the Eastern Greenland precedent, where the absence of inhabitants had led the Permanent
Court of International Justice to require only a very low level of administration as satisfying the
requirement of effective and manifest control. In rejecting that claim, the International Court remarked:

But in the present instance, Western Sahara, if somewhat sparsely populated, was a territory across which socially
and politically organized tribes were in constant movement and where armed incidents between these tribes were

In those regions of Somaliland claimed by Ethiopia, the level of control has been sparse and often
nonexistent. Nor does it appear that any historical claims can avail:

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‘Tax collecting’ forays in the Somali Ogaden country were called off as early as 1915 after the massacre of one
hundred and fifty Ethiopian solders in January of that year. Since that was the only profitable element in the
provincial administration of the Ogaden, this zone, which also included territory to the south of Somaliland
border, was barely occupied by authorities before the Wal Wal incident.23

From the time of its establishment, the Somali Republic has consistently denounced the borders asserted
by Ethiopia. Neither words nor deeds after independence can be construed as recognition of the Ethiopian
claims. The fact that time elapsed before the establishment of Somalia as an independent state during
which European states, purporting to act on behalf of the Somali people did not protest the Ethiopian
claims, does not contribute to Ethiopian claims to western Somaliland. Nor does not this fact in any way
extinguish its rights; laches or estoppel do not run against a party which has been denied procedural
access.24 If the absence of protest is relevant to the consolidation of a title, it is necessary to provide
sufficient notice and sufficient time for, as Judge Huber put it in Island of Palmas, “a reasonable
possibility” to react.25 In short, Ethiopia’s claims cannot benefit from a claim of estoppel or preculsion.

Under international law, prior to the installation of the doctrine of self-determination as a fundamental
norm, the requisite components for the establishment of a title by occupation were “an intention to secure
sovereignty and the exercise of continuously effective control, the former being derivable from the
latter.26 Ethiopia certainly fulfills the requirements of psychological component.27 But Ethiopia’s
aspirations have far exceeded her political capacities and she has not fulfilled the all-important
requirement of continuously effective control in the occupied Somali territories.

It has been claimed that it is only the most recent international agreement which must be consulted. To
the purported disposition of portions of Somaliland, this claim concedes that the 1897 agreement violated
the Protectorate agreements of 1884 to 1889, but avers that the violation is irrelevant, since the latest
agreement in time prevails.28 But the internal, domestic doctrine of lex posterior derogate priori, i.e., a
latter law prevails over earlier ones makes no sense and indeed has no application where the competence
to make law is derived from, and limited by, some other authority; nor is it pertinent in a system which

Consider the following example. Mr. X’s title to property which he has purchased from Mr. Y is only as
good as Mr. Y’s title to that property. Mr Y’s title, in turn, is only as good as the title of Mr. Z from
whom Y acquired it. This sequence continues until we encounter some basic or first authority. That first
authority in cases of inhabited territory is the will of the indigenous inhabitants. In international law, basic
authority in the disposition of territory, as we will see shortly, is the principle of self-determination.

The authority with which Britain disposed parts of Somaliland is found in the complex of protectorate
agreements concluded by Britain and the Somali tribes from 1884 to 1889; for it is only in these
agreements that the Somali tribes accorded whatever authority the British might have had with respect to
the territories. No authority to transfer was given. The contention that, this limited authority
notwithstanding, Britain could make subsequent agreements violating the authority and trust on a
principle of lex posterior derogate would defeat the basic policies of international law.

3. Decolonization and the Right of Self-Determination

The traditional search for title in international law is in fact of only secondary interest, because no
contemporary consideration of these problems can proceed without reference to the doctrine of self-
determination. It is a basic right of contemporary international law which has been given prominence in
the United Nations Charter, by decisions of the International Court of Justice, by subsequent multilateral
agreements exhibiting customary expectations, and by numerous resolutions by the General Assembly. 29
Both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on

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Economic, Social and Cultural Rights30 affirm in identical terms the right of self-determination. Article 1

All people have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status
and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development. The States Parties to the present Covenant,
including those having responsibility for the administration of Non-Self-Governing and Trust Territories, shall
promote the realization of the right of self-determination, and shall respect that right, in conformity with the

The most authoritative expression of the right of self-determination is Resolution 1514 (XV), the
Declaration on the Granting Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, which the general

The Declaration adopts a functional definition of colonialism, speaking of colonialism in “all its forms
and manifestations.” Thus it does not limit itself, by its express terms, to the subjugation of non-European
peoples by Europeans. Rather it undertakes a more functional approach in which the emphasis is upon the
fact of subjugation by racially or ethnically distinct group, which need not be European. This crucial point
was clarified in Resolution 1541 (XV),32 which was passed on the same day as Resolution 1514 (XV),
cited above, and may be viewed as an authentic interpretation thereof.

The Resolution, entitled, “Principles of Which Should Guide Members in Determining Whether or not an
Obligation Exists to Transmit the Information Called for under Article 73 e of the Charter,” was
concerned inter alia with identifying the features of a non-self-governing territory’s status, which would,
under Charter obligations, require the annual submission of information by the administering state.

Prima facie there is an obligation to transmit information in respect of a territory which is geographically separate
and is distinct ethnically and/or culturally from the country administering it.

Once it has been established that such a prima facie case of geographical and ethnical or cultural distinctness of a
territory exists, other elements may then be brought into consideration. These additional elements may be, inter
alia, of an administrative, political, juridical, economic or historical nature. If they affect the relationship between
the metropolitan State and the territory concerned in a matter which arbitrarily places the latter in a position or
status of subordination, they support the presumption that there is an obligation to transmit information under

The same functional approach was confirmed in the General Assembly’s Declaration on Principles of
International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the

By virtue of the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples enshrined in the Charter of the United
Nations, all people have the right freely to determine, without external interference, their political status and to
pursue their economic, social and cultural development, and every state has the duty to respect this right in
accordance with the provisions of the charter. Every state has the duty to promote, through joint and separation
action, realization of principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, In accordance with the
provisions of the charter, and to render assistance to the united Nations an carrying out the responsibilities
entrusted to it by the charter regarding the implementation of the principles , in order:
(a) To promote friendly relations and cooperation among states: and
(b) To bring a speedy end to colonialism, having due regard to the freely expressed will the peoples concerned:
and bearing in mind subjection of peoples to alien subjection , domination and exploitation constitutes a violation
of the principle, as well as denial of fundamental human rights and contrary to the Charter.33

The significant of this development was aptly summarized by the international court of justice in the

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Furthermore , the subsequent development of international law in regard to non-self -governing territories , as
enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations , made the principle of self-determination applicable to all of them.
The Concept of the sacred trust was confirmed and expanded to all " territories whose peoples have not yet
attained a full measure of self-government" (Art 73). Thus it clearly embraced territories under a colonial regime.
Obviously the sacred trust continued to apply to league of Nations mandated territories on which an
international status had been conferred earlier. A further important stage in this development was declaration on
Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples ( General Assembly resolution 1514(XV)of
December 1960). Which embraces all People and territories which "have not yet attained independence" . Nor is
it possible to leave out account of political history of mandated territories in general. All those which did not
acquire independence , excluding Namibia , were placed under trusteeship. Today only two out of fifteen ,
excluding Namibia, remain under United Nations tutelage. This is but a manifestation of the general development

It is obvious that the principle of self-determination will sometimes challenging existing state structures,
the maintenance of whose stability is a anther goal of the international legal system. This coordinate goal
is expressed in UN Charter and virtually all UN Resolutions which have expressed international policy on
the matter of self-determination. There is, in short a potential conflict between two policies. Which one

The answer to that question has recently been provided by International Court of Justice in its important
opinion regarding the Western Sahara.35 That case squarely contraposed the policies of self-determination
of people against the territorial integrity of an existing state. Morocco and Mauritania claimed land to
which they had legal ties which Spain ignored when it occupied the territory in the latter days of its
imperial expansion into North Africa. Though the people of Western Sahara were not present in the
Hague, the Court , directed by the reference of the General Assembly , considered their opposing claim
that the Contemporary will of the people was paramount over the past legal claims in disputes of this sort.
The court concluded that both Morocco and Mauritania could demonstrate "legal ties", but it was the will
of the people which prevailed.36 These dramatic legal developments may be summarized as follows.

(i) Self-determination is a fundamental right in contemporary international law:
(ii) The rights is available to all people who are subjugated, i.e. functionally subjected to colonialism:
(iii) A situation of subjugation will be inferred from such objective factors as geographical, ethnical or cultural

Prima facie, the western Somali territory and people administered by Ethiopia are factually from
metropolitan Ethiopia, and their racial, ethnic, linguistic and cultural distinctiveness from Amhara-ruled
Ethiopia is total. Hence they would appear to be entitled to the right of self-determination under

4. Self-determination and Non-Self-Governing Territories

Self-determination the- notion that people should decide their community and its power stricture-is the
basic principle of political legitimacy in this century. Its predominance, as we have seen is now where
more evident than in the United Nations Charter where it occurs, in grand language, in Article 1, where it
is listed among the purposes and principles of the organization, in Chapters XII and XIII where it is given
practical application in the conception of international trusteeship and , in most extraordinary form , in
Article 73. It is that provision which introduces the idea of the "non-Self -Governing Territory" a notion
which may well be the most radical political conception in entire Charter.

Members of the United Nations which have or assume a responsibilities for the administration of territories whose
peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-government recognize the principle that the

interests of the inhabitants of these territories are paramount , and accept as a sacred trust the obligation to
promote the utmost , within the system of international peace and security established by the present Charter the

HORN OF AFRICA JULY-SEPTEMBER

well-being of the inhabitants of these territories , and to this end:
a. to ensure , with due respect for the culture of the peoples concerned , their political , economic, social and
educational advancement , their just treatment , and their protection against abuses:
b. to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in
the progressive development of their free political institutions , according to the particular circumstances of each
territory and its peoples and their varying stage of advancement.
d. to promote constructive measures of development, to encourage research, and to cooperate with one another
and, when and where appropriate, with specialized international bodies with a view to practical achievement of
the social economic, and scientific purposes set forth in this Article¸ and
e. to transmit regularly to the Secretary General for information purposes, subject to such limitation as security
and constitutional considerations may require, statistical and other information of a technical nature relating to
economic, social and educational conditions in the territories for which they are respectively responsible other

Legal reforms often include what lawyers call a " grandfather clause", a proviso that reforms apply
henceforth to everyone- except the reforms. But Article 73 has no grandfather clause. Hence the explosive
potential of Article 73 cannot be overstated. It challenges, in express terms, historical claims by states to
control peoples who are distinct from ruling group; it insists what even existing states must

Although there have been ample opportunities to limit the trust of his provision, it is significant that the
tendency among international decision-makers has been to expand rather than to contract it. The
International Court of Justice, in the Namibia case, indicated, as we saw earlier, that this provision is to be
given an extensive interpretation in keeping with the basic principles of the contemporary international

The western Somali territory under Ethiopian administration would appear to fall into the category
designated in Article 75 of the United Nations Charter as "territories whose people have not yet attained a
full measure of self-government;" and so member states of the United Nations administering them have
special obligations to the inhabitants and to the International community.

The mere fact of a persistent popular uprising would lead on to believe that there is a feeling of
deprivation of human rights in western Somaliland.37 Indeed the record would suggest that the
administrator has failed to ensure "political, economic, social and educational advancement". It has, for
example , extensively used Amharic rather than Somali in schools and government offices in Western
Somaliland: it has failed "to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations of
the people and assist them in progressive development of their free political institutions" and it has failed
to encourage self-determination. These failures to discharge the "sacred trust" mentioned in Article 73
and affirmed by the International Court of Justice in the Namibia case would appear to be material
violations of the agreements under which Ethiopia undertook administration and by which it must justify

In the post-Charter period , the mere fact that an alien state seizes control over a territory and purports, by
its internal law, to integrate it is no longer sufficient to consolidate or prefect an international title. The
principle of the right of self-determination of peoples and , in particular, General Assembly Resolutions
1514 (XV) and 1541 (XV)38 now require that an erstwhile integrator fulfill prescribed conditions.

A Non-Self-Government Territory can be said to have reached a full measure of self-government by:

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The implementation of any one of these three options requires free, voluntary and informed choice. The
proportionately higher demand for meeting international standards in integration of culturally, racially, or
linguistically distinct peoples which Principle IX sets is quite understandable. Unless Metropolitan itself
is extremely democratic and liberal, these distinctions will rapidly become impediments to the full
participation of the integrated peoples and will, hence, involve a type of post-hoc denial of the right of
self-determination. The Declaration on Friendly Relations between States provides in relevant part:

The territory of a colony or other Non-Self-governing territory has, under the Charter, a status separate and
distinct from the territory of the State administering it; and such separate and distinct status under the Charter
shall exist until the people of the colony or Non-Self-Governing Territory have exercised their right of self-
determination in accordance with the charter, and particularly its purposes and principles.40

Because the procedures of Principle VI have not been complied with, attempts by Ethiopia to incorporate
parts of western Somaliland are null and void. Hence the title to the territory of western Somaliland must
be deemed pendent until an appropriate exercise of self-determination takes place.

5. Conflicts Between International and Regional Law

A regional organization cannot supersede a fundamental policy of the UN and insist that, tough that
policy may apply everywhere else in the world, it will not apply to member-states of that region. The
issue is pertinent here because of AHG/Res.171, the Organization of African Unity’s resolution of 1964
on boundaries. But it may be useful to consider the background of that resolution before we conclude that

From the time of the All-African People’s Conference in Accra in 1958, the problem of “artificial
frontiers drawn by imperialist powers to divide the people of Africa” has been a continuing concern of
African political leaders.41 While the charter of the OAU properly expresses concern for the principle of
territorial integrity, it affirms “the inalienable right of all people to control their own destiny”, and
incorporates by express reference the United Nations Charter. Thus, it super ordinates the right of self-
determination as does the Charter. An effort to do otherwise would be in vain, for article 103 of the
Charter states that in conflicts between the Charter and the obligations of other international agreements,

In 1964, the Assembly of Heads of states and Governments of the OAU, passed a resolution, under an
agenda item entitled “Study of Ways and Means which may help to avoid new border disputes between

The Assembly of Heads of States and Government meeting in its First Ordinary Session in Cairo, U.A.R., from
Considering that border problems constitute a grave and permanent factor of dissension. Conscious of the
existence of extra-African man-oeuvres aimed at dividing African States. Considering further that the borders of
African States, on the day of their independence, constitute a tangible reality. Recalling the establishment in the
course of the Second Ordinary Session of the Council of the Eleven charged with studying further measures for
strengthening African Unity. Recognizing the imperious necessity of settling, by peaceful means and within a
strictly African framework, all disputes between African States .Recalling further that all Member States have
pledged, under Article VI of the Charter of African Unity, to respect scrupulously all principles laid down in
paragraph 3 of Article III of the Charter of the Organization of African Unity, 2
1. Solemnly reaffirms the strict respect by all Member States of the Organization for the principles laid down in
paragraph 3 of Article III of the Charter of the Organization of African Unity:
2. Solemnly declares that all Member States pledge themselves to respect the borders existing on their achievement

AHG/res .171 was obviously animated by a valid concern: boundary disputes can stimulate conflict and
provide opportunities for extra-continental intervention. The principle of self-determination, as I

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mentioned earlier, has an explosive potential which was deplored even at the time Wilson undertook to
transform it into a principle of international law. But the principle itself is premised on the idea that the
only stable state of affairs will be one with wide popular support, i.e. one in which self-determination has
been achieved. Most important, the principle has become a fundamental norm of international law. Hence
even if a regional grouping wanted to suspend its application it could not. Moreover, it is difficult to see
how someone can abjure the right of self-determination for someone else. Do I have the right to announce

AHG/res.171 can properly be understood as affirming on the regional level the strong policy in favor of
the presumptive validity of boundaries where they exist and the requirement that disputes about them be
solved peacefully , without the introduction of extra continental forces. But the Western Somali case is
not a boundary problem. There are no legal boundaries and extra-continental forces have already been
introduced by one party to the conflict. AHG/res.171 cannot be understood as abridging the right of self-

The fundamental question in the case of western Somaliland administrated by Ethiopia is whether human
beings historically tied to their land are to be viewed as no more than the rocks and the trees of the land to
be bought or transferred at the will of some more powerful state or whether these human beings are to be
accepted as agents of their own destiny. The international legal answer to this question is clear, utterly
and unequivocally: the right of decolonization and self-determination is a peremptory and fundamental
norm in contemporary international law. The international political answer has been more equivocal,
often reflecting the short-term interests of the more powerful states of the world.

There is a certain unreality in exploring the legal issues in dispute in which the parties themselves have
already opted for a resolution by forces of arms. Yet even activities undertaken unilaterally maybe lawful.
The Somalis have much authority on their side but that raises questions which go beyond this paper, and
must be deferred for another study. When a regional or an international authority is finally willing to
appraise or intervene in the claims of the different parties, the international legal aspects of case should
and presumably will be a factor in the decision. The appropriate resolution of the conflict in western
Somaliland is a consultation of the wishes of the inhabitants, preferably by an internationally supervised
plebiscite. Government based on the will of the people should be the source of stability in the troubled

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Public Records Ofice (London). Foriegn Office 1/32 Rodd to Salisbury, No. 15, May 4, 1897, qouted in full in
For convenient compilation of the texts of the agreement, see id, at 79-128.
See generally I.M. Lewis, The Modern History of Somaliland from Nation to State 63-91 (1965)
T. Farer, War Clouds over the Horn of Africa 64 (1976); Drysdale, The Somali Dispute 65 (1964)
See General Assembly Resolutions 392 (V), December 15, 1950; 854 (IX) Dec 14, 1954; 947 (X), Dec 15, 1955;
1608 (VI), Feb. 26, 1967; 123 (XII), Dec 14, 1957; 1345 (XIII), Dec 13, 1958.
Touval, Somali Nationalism: International Politics and the Drive for Unity in the Horn of Africa 156 (1963)
Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia [1071] I.C.J. Reports
H. Hopkinson, Minister of State for Colonial Affairs, parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, fifth series, vol.
Chen and Reisman, “Who Owns Taiwan,” 81 Yale L.J. 599,624 (1972)
See Brown. ”The Ethiopian Somaliland Dispute,” 5 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 245 (1956)
For historical review of these authoritative texts, see Western Sahara case, op. cit. supra n. 22.
GA Res. 2200 A (XXI), Annex. 21 UNGAOR Supp. 16, at 49-60, UN Doc. A/6316 (1966). Both Covenants came into
GA Res. 1514, 15 UNGAOR Supp. 16, at 66 UN Doc. A/4684(1960)
GA Res. 1541, 15 UNGAOR Supp. 16 at 29, UN Doc. A/4684 (1960)
GA Res. 2625 (XXV), Oct 24, 1970. UNGAOR 25th Sess., Supp No. 28 (8028) p. 121
For the text of the resolution, see C Legum, Pan-Africanism: A short political Guide 229(1962)
For text of the Charter, see 58 A.J.I.l.873 (1964). On the equivocality see B. Boutros-Ghali, The Addis Ababa
Charter,546 Int’l Conciliation 29-30 (1964): Touval, “The Organization of African Unity and Africa Borders.” 21

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AHG/Res.17 (I). The Resolution was immediately challenged by the Somali Foreign Minister and subsequently
categorically rejected by the Somali republic.The Somali republic and the organization of African Unity, op. cit. at
20-22. Significantly, president Nyerere of Tanzania, author of the resolution, explained in discussion following the
Resolution that the purpose of the resolution was as a guide for the future. “Its adoption should not prejudice any
discussion already in progress” Id. At 24; McEwen International Boundaries of East Africa 25 (1971). Even with such
authentic clarifications, the resolution contains implications and ambiguities utterly alien to the basic policies on
which independent Africa had reared itself. Consider the temporal problem, the reach through time of the
Resolution. The critical date, for crystallization of boundaries, is the “achievement of national independence.”

Since Ethiopia achieved independence millennia ago when it was an Abyssinian
mountain kingdom, it should clearly withdraw to those borders under the strict

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Irish Ogadeni Solidarity Committees

Saturday 2 March 2013

The Ogaden National Liberation Front Attends the founding of SORTU for the Basque People

Friday 1 March 2013

History of Ogaden